A general strategy for self-healing elastomers with ultralong room-temperature phosphorescence†

Nan Li , Shiyu Gu , Qi Wu * and Jinrong Wu *
College of Polymer Science and Engineering, National Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymer Materials, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China. E-mail: wuqi57@scu.edu.cn; wujinrong@scu.edu.cn

First published on 12th May 2025

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New concepts Developing room-temperature phosphorescence (RTP) elastomers by incorporating commercial phosphors into elastic matrices with persistent segment motions shows promise for flexible sensors and stretchable optics. However, existing methods relying on intricate designs and fabrication routes limit industrial scalability, highlighting the urgent need for a universal commercialization strategy. Here, we have proposed a general approach for self-healing phosphorescent elastomers (HPEs) with ultralong RTP lifetime (up to 2.679 s) through dynamic B–O bonds, surpassing all previously reported RTP elastomers. Such HPE films obtained by this universal method demonstrate scalable areas ranging from 1 × 1 cm2 to 45 × 50 cm2, with potential for further size expansion. With the assistance of self-healing properties, HPEs can be easily structurally transformed from 2D to 3D models. Combining the stretchability, self-healing capacity and ultralong RTP uniform emission, the HPEs have potential applications in intelligent sensors and stretchable optics devices, and this work provides a general and scalable solution for the production of long-lived RTP elastomers.

1. Introduction

Organic materials with room temperature phosphorescence (RTP) have attracted widespread attention in the multidisciplinary fields of materials science,^1,2 information anticounterfeiting,^3–5 bioimaging^6–8 and optoelectronic devices.^9–12 Until now, purely organic RTP materials have been extensively developed and grouped under two broad categories: small molecule crystals^13,14 and polymers.^15,16 Compared with organic small molecule crystals limited by harsh growth environments and poor processability,^17,18 polymer-based RTP materials possess the inherent advantages of high flexibility, tunable mechanical properties and ease of processing, which effectively provide a vast platform for practical applications, especially in flexible sensors and stretchable optics devices.^19–22 Polymer-based RTP materials are mostly fabricated in a rigid plastic matrix (such as polyvinyl alcohol,^23–26 poly(methyl methacrylate),^27–29 polystyrene,^30,31etc.), in which intertwined polymer chains and numerous inter/intramolecular interactions effectively impede molecular motion of phosphors, thereby enabling highly efficient RTP emission.³² However, such a rigid plastic structure affords RTP materials with high brittleness and poor stretchability, extremely weakening the advantageous flexibility and processability of the polymeric matrix and hindering further application in practical fields.^33–35 Therefore, it remains a significant challenge to achieve stretchable RTP polymers, particularly in an elastic matrix.

Elastomers are utilized above their glass transition temperature, where persistent and active mobility of polymeric chain segments endows them with high elasticity, enabling rapid recovery to their original state upon release of the external force. Such chain segment motions are very unfavorable for luminophores to obtain RTP emission.^36,37 To realize the RTP property in the elastic matrix, the hard–soft microphase-separated structures provide a viable strategy to gain efficient RTP performance and high stretchability simultaneously: the hard phase can provide a rigid environment to stabilize the RTP performance of the phosphors, while the soft phase ensures their stretchability.^38,39 For example, Huang et al. designed a series of block copolymers with microphase separation to combine stiffness and softness simultaneously, which demonstrate extensibility and long phosphorescent lifetime of 0.98 s;⁴⁰ Huang et al. also fabricated a gradient copolymer architecture with controlled heterogeneities, which could self-assemble into a multiphase nanostructure, possessing tunable stretchability and excellent RTP performance;⁴¹ Yang et al. utilized a thermoplasticizing strategy to alter the dispersion states and micro-environment of RTP molecules in common styrene–isoprene–styrene block copolymers, realizing elasticity and long-lived dual RTP emission.⁴² Nevertheless, the methods currently reported often involve complex structural designs or sophisticated fabrication routes, which are both costly and inadequate for large-scale industrial production. Therefore, it is challenging but essential to develop a facile and universal strategy for the commercialization of RTP elastomers.

Recently, our group has successfully achieved ultralong RTP emission in a harsh polymeric viscous flow state (called RTP putty) by B–O click reaction among boric acid, polyvinyl alcohol, and hydroxyl silicone oil.⁴³ RTP putty behaves as a viscous liquid (cold flow property) under static or low strain rates but acts as an elastic solid at high strain rates under room temperature.^44,45 Herein, we propose a general and simple strategy to fabricate a series of self-healing phosphorescent elastomers (HPEs) by dynamic B–O bonds, achieving various commercial phosphors with persistent RTP in silicone rubber systems (Fig. 1a). These HPEs exhibit ultralong phosphorescent emission with a lifetime of up to 2.679 s under ambient conditions, which is higher than other reported RTP elastomers (Fig. 1b). Notably, this universal strategy realizes HPEs with uniform RTP emission in range from 1 × 1 cm² to 20 × 20 cm² to 45 × 50 cm² and even larger (Fig. 1c). The intrinsic self-healing ability endows HPEs with more processing possibilities, such as reversible structural transition between 2D and 3D models (Fig. 1d). Such stretchable HPEs can be applied in multi-patterning displays, anti-counterfeiting coating, transient information recording and erasing and time-dependent encryption–decryption (Fig. 1e). To our knowledge, this work provides a general and practical solution for the commercial production and extensive application of long-lived RTP elastomers, rendering HPEs potential candidates for flexible displays in intelligent sensors and stretchable optics applications.

2. Results

2.1. Preparation and characterization of HPEs

HPEs are fabricated by mixing components (hydroxyl silicone oil, boric acid, polyvinyl alcohol and phosphors) of RTP putty and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) with various mass ratios in one pot at ambient temperature, thereby pouring them into a fluoridated mold and curing under 60 °C (Fig. 1a and Table S1, ESI†). Here, PDMS provides a covalently cross-linking network to maintain the structural stability of the HPEs. To confirm the introduction of RTP putty, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra are performed on HPEs, RTP putty and PDMS films (Fig. 2a). Wide absorption bands are observed around 1340 cm⁻¹ in HPE-2 and RTP putty but not in PDMS samples, which are assigned to the stretching vibrational modes of Si–O–B bonds.^46–48 Moreover, with the increase of RTP putty content, the peak intensity of B–O increases significantly (Fig. S1, ESI†). These results prove that RTP putty has been successfully introduced into HPEs.

To explore the influence of the covalent cross-linking network on HPEs, rheological measurements were carried out on RTP putty, HPEs and PDMS through frequency sweeps at 25 °C in Fig. 2b–d and Fig. S2 (ESI†). For RTP putty, the storage modulus (G′) is lower than the loss modulus (G′′) at low frequencies, showing a viscoelastic liquid-like state. Nonetheless, as the frequency gradually increases, G′ rises above G′′ after the crossover point (frequency at G′ = G′′, ω₀) and then transfers to a solid-like state. Such frequency-dependent G′ indicates the shear-stiffening behavior of RTP putty. For covalent cross-linking PDMS, G′ is always higher than G′′ in the whole tested frequency range, indicating that the covalent cross-linking network remains elastic at room temperature independent of frequency.⁴⁹ Obviously, the G′ of all HPEs is higher than G′′ over the frequencies tested, showing a rubbery elastic behavior. Moreover, the G′ of the HPEs rises with the increase in PDMS ratio, indicating that the construction of the stable crosslinking network of HPEs can restrain the cold flow behavior of RTP putty, further achieving the structural stability of HPEs (Fig. S2, ESI†).

Furthermore, the mechanical performance of HPEs is determined by tensile tests. It is clear that HPE-1 is highly flexible with a long strain at a break of 173%. With the incorporation of PDMS, the tensile strength of the HPEs increases while the corresponding elongation at break decreases. Thus, the mechanical properties of the HPEs can be easily regulated by varying the ratio of the stable PDMS crosslinking network to HPEs (Fig. 2e and Fig. S3, ESI†). Furthermore, cyclic tensile tests are performed on the HPEs and PDMS. The loading–unloading curves of PDMS overlap, indicating that it is highly resilient. As for the HPEs, the hysteresis loops are small and the hysteresis loops undergo a gradual expansion with the addition of RTP putty, which can be attributed to the association and dissociation of dynamic B–O bonds in the RTP putty (Fig. S4, ESI†).⁵⁰ Thus, these dynamic B–O bonds can readily break and reform to dissipate energy while the cross-linking networks distribute stress and maintain the structural stability of the HPEs.

Based on the dynamic B–O bonds, the damaged HPEs are capable of self-healing at ambient temperature. To illustrate this property, rectangular HPE-2 samples are cut in half by a blade, and then the damaged surfaces are brought into contact at 25 °C for 30 min. The mechanical properties can be partly recovered from stress–strain curves, suggesting that HPEs can be self-healed at room temperature. Additionally, under a scanning electron microscope (SEM), the fractured surfaces on the HPE films are observed to almost merge after healing at 25 °C for 10 min (Fig. 2f and Fig. S5a, S6, ESI†). Amazingly, after healing for only 1 min, the two pieces of HPE-2 are welded together and can sustain a 25 g weight without breaking, as illustrated in Fig. S5b (ESI†). Consequently, we have successfully prepared a series of elastomers with self-healing properties, endowing RTP elastomers with enhanced compatibility to meet the requirements of soft robotics and advanced flexible wearable devices.^51–54

2.2. Photophysical properties of the HPEs

To systematically investigate the photophysical properties of HPEs, the excitation and emission processes of the HPEs are first evaluated by steady-state and delayed photoluminescence (PL) spectra. Under the excitation of 365 nm UV light, fluorescence emission peaks are observed at 386 nm in the prompt delayed PL spectra of the HPEs, showing dodger blue fluorescence under ambient conditions. Meanwhile, the delayed PL spectra of the HPEs exhibit that the phosphorescence emission bands are located at 491 nm, displaying persistent cyan phosphorescence (Fig. 3a; detailed photophysical data are collected in Table S2, ESI†). Their emission decay times are measured to be 2.360 s, 2.679 s, 1.032 s and 0.802 s from HPE-1 to HPE-4, respectively (Fig. 3b and c). In particular, it is worth noting that the HPE-2 exhibited the longest RTP lifetime of 2.679 s, higher than those of all reported RTP elastomers (Table S3, ESI†). Moreover, after the removal of UV excitation, HPE-2 exhibited an intense blue afterglow at 491 nm with a duration of ∼16 s without any encapsulations (Fig. 3d and Movie S1, ESI†).

To further confirm the homogeneous RTP emission from the HPEs, confocal fluorescence microscopy is employed to demonstrate their uniform light-emitting properties. The entire surface of the HPE-2 film exhibits highly homogeneous light emission in the confocal fluorescence image over the tested range (Fig. 3e); meanwhile, the HPEs presented better luminescence uniformity as the content of RTP putty increased (Fig. S7–S10, ESI†). Furthermore, the fluorescence intensity distribution of the HPEs demonstrates minimal fluctuations over randomly selected distances in the confocal fluorescence images presented above, suggesting that the RTP putties are uniformly dispersed in PDMS. In particular, the emission of the HPE-2 films is observed from a three-dimensional perspective by Z-scan luminescence imaging, which further confirms the high luminescence uniformity of the HPEs. Therefore, the yielded HPE films exhibit excellent light-emitting uniformity and ultralong RTP lifetimes under ambient conditions (up to 2.679 s).

Given the superior photophysical performance of HPEs via a simple blending process, we next investigate the feasibility and versatility of this approach. The other HPE (HPE-5) sample is further obtained by only replacing the DPCz phosphor with an alternative commercially available phosphor, namely 1,3,5-tris(4-aminophenyl)benzene (TPB-3NH₂). The steady-state prompt PL spectrum of HPE-5 displays an emission band at 403 nm and the fluorescence emission is quite similar to that of the above HPEs, showing dark blue fluorescence under ambient conditions. Furthermore, the main phosphorescence emission peak of HPE-5 is observed at 535 nm in the delayed PL spectra, and the RTP lifetime of HPE-5 fabricated by the same strategy is up to 1.678 s, which is also higher than that of other RTP elastomers reported to date (Fig. 3f). Strikingly, a green afterglow lasting for a period of ∼14 s can be observed in HPE-5 after removing 365 nm UV irradiation (Movie S2, ESI†).

In general, our proposed strategy can achieve the synthesis of efficient RTP elastomers with ultralong phosphorescent lifetimes, which exhibit stretchability and self-healing ability. Moreover, such a general method has broad applicability to other commercial phosphors, thus enhancing its potential for industrial adoption.

2.3. Elastic and self-healing exhibition of HPEs

Given the above performance characterization of RTP-based elastomers, it is necessary to visualize their elastic and self-healing properties through some demonstrations. As shown in Fig. 4a, the HPE films exhibit stretchability to withstand behavior such as stretching, twisting and buckling, while maintaining RTP performance under tension and torsion (Movie S3, ESI†). Furthermore, the elasticity of the HPE films is characterized visually by falling ball tests. We wave a grid consisting of HPE-2 and HPE-5 strips and fix it on a hollow support (Fig. S11, ESI†). When a 32 g luminous ball is dropped naturally from a height of 30 cm, the rebound path of the ball after contacting the grid can be clearly observed, while the grid still emits a bright afterglow after impacting. Therefore, the HPEs exhibit outstanding elasticity and RTP properties (Fig. 4b and Movie S4, ESI†). Impressively, the RTP-based elastomer with stretchable capacity can be well maintained even at a low temperature of −78 °C or in water, due to the remarkable low-temperature resistance and hydrophobicity of the silicone rubber matrix (Fig. 4c and Fig. S12, Movie S5, ESI†).^55–57 Such fantastic features make HPE films perfect elastic candidates for practical usage in harsh conditions.

In addition, benefiting from the flexible and self-healing capacity of the RTP elastic films, we also create a range of complex two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) models that can be folded and bent by instant self-replication. The HPE-2 and HPE-5 films are cut into lines and then the cuts in the ports are simply spliced into multiple small rings. These instantly repairable lines can be formed into colorful Möbius rings by twisting 180° or connected with each other to obtain a series of 3D Interlocking rings that can be lifted without breaking (Fig. 4e). In particular, colorful phosphorescence “Chinese tangrams” can be cut and constructed with different films of HPEs. These tangrams in various shapes can be self-healed together and withstand external forces such as lifting, folding and rolling. As a result, a variety of specific numbers or letters can be formed to convey a message, meanwhile exhibiting bright afterglows with different colors after removing the UV lamp (Fig. 4d and Fig. S13, S14, ESI†). Furthermore, these self-healing HPE films demonstrate a cyclical structural transition between 2D and 3D models without fracture, suggesting that the self-healing capability offers HPEs many more processing possibilities (Fig. 4f).

2.4. Potential applications of large-scale HPEs

Combining the stretchability, self-healing capacity and RTP properties of these HPEs, we explore their potential for application in various fields, such as time-dependent encryption–decryption, transient information recording and erasing or anti-counterfeiting coating. As shown in Fig. 5a, the striped HPEs are randomly arranged into two types of persistent RTP password barcodes by self-healing behavior, which are essentially identical under daylight or 365 nm UV illumination, but immediately show different brightness afterglows after removing UV irradiation. Depending on the brightness of the afterglow, it is possible to store information in barcodes with a bright afterglow and simply sort them as required to effectively encrypt the stored information. Furthermore, based on the unique time-dependent afterglow color change characteristic of the HPEs, we can store the true information “17” in the pattern “98”. Under UV light, the complete pattern “98” emits blue fluorescence and the true information is protected. Only when we obey the correct observation time can we get the encrypted message “17” (Movie S6, ESI†).

In addition, a variety of encoding patterns are fabricated to demonstrate the potential applications of these HPE films with reversible photo-activation behaviors in erasable photo-lithography. When photomasks with custom-made patterns such as “panda” and “12 Symbolic Animals” are placed on the HPE film surface, their encrypted patterns are revealed only after UV irradiation and can be completely erased by exposure to air (Fig. 5b and Fig. S15, ESI†). Therefore, such information encryption and decryption cycles can also be repeated by other modes. Furthermore, films with a maximum area of 45 × 50 cm² demonstrate the application of large-scale erasable photolithography (Fig. S16, ESI†).

Finally, the HPEs in a liquid state can be used as an anti-counterfeiting coating to create anti-counterfeit images on highly transparent PDMS substrates, which are similar to Chinese sugar paintings (Fig. 5c). Thus, these HPEs integrate mechanical stretchability, efficient RTP performance and self-healing capabilities, facilitating cost-effective production of RTP-based devices including flexible optoelectronic displays and anti-counterfeiting coating for next-generation wearable electronics.

3. Conclusion

In conclusion, we have presented a general fabrication strategy for self-healing phosphorescent elastomers through dynamic B–O bonds, which enables diverse commercial phosphors to achieve persistent RTP emission within silicon rubber. Notably, the resulting HPEs exhibit the longest RTP lifetime of 2.679 s under ambient conditions, surpassing all reported RTP elastomers. Such HPE films obtained by this universal method demonstrate scalable areas ranging from 1 × 1 cm² to 45 × 50 cm², with potential for further size expansion. Therefore, combining the stretchability, self-healing capacity and ultralong RTP uniform emission, these HPEs have potential applications in multi-patterning displays, flexible wearable devices and time-dependent encryption. This work provides a universal and practical solution for the commercial production and broad application of long-lived RTP elastomers, positioning HPE as a promising candidate for flexible displays in intelligent soft robotics and adaptive optics.

4. Experimental methods

4.1. Materials

Low viscosity dihydroxypolydimethylsiloxane (PDMS-OH, 42 mPa s) and silicone elastomer (PDMS, Sylguard-184A and Sylguard-184B) were obtained from Dow Chemical Co. Ltd. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA, hydrolysis alcoholysis degree >99.5 mol%), boric acid (BA, 98.5%), 1,3,5-tris(4-aminophenyl)benzene (TPB-3NH₂, 98%), 3,6-diphenyl-9H-carbazole (DPCz, 98%), dimethylformamide (DMF, 99.8%) and methanol (MeOH, 99.9%) were purchased from Adamas-beta, Shanghai, China. All of these chemicals were used as received. RTP putty was prepared using a reported method.⁴³

4.2. Characterization

The molecular weight of each silicone elastomer was obtained on a HIC-8320 GPC (gel permeation chromatography) using THF as the eluent. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra of raw materials and newly prepared elastomer samples were recorded on a Thermo Scientific Nicolet iS50 FT-IR spectrometer, and the wavenumber scanning range was 400 to 4000 cm⁻¹. The rheological measurements were tested by an MCR302 rheometer. The stress–strain experiments were carried out on an INSTRON 3344 instrument with the tensile rate of 100 mm min⁻¹ at room temperature. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images were performed on a Nova nano SEM450. The steady-state fluorescence and phosphorescence spectra were acquired on a HORIBA FluoroMax-4 spectrofluorometer. The fluorescence and phosphorescent lifetimes were conducted on a Fluorolog-3 spectrofluorometer.

4.3. Preparation of HPEs

Firstly, the PVA (20 g) with a hydrolysis degree of 99.5 mol% was added into a 1000 mL single-necked round-bottom flask and dissolved in deionized water (400 mL) at 95 °C for 4 h. Subsequently, the DPCz (50 mg) phosphor was dissolved in 20 ml DMF to get a DPCz solution (2.5 mg mL⁻¹). The solutions obtained above were used for the subsequent experiments. Next, the raw materials of PVA aqueous solution (10 mL, 50 mg mL⁻¹), low viscosity PDMS-OH (20 g), BA (0.28 g) and MeOH (2.5 mL) were mixed at room temperature, and the DPCz solution (2.5 mL, 2.5 mg mL⁻¹) was added dropwise. Then, the mixtures were stirred homogeneously with Sylguard-184 (Sylguard-184A and Sylguard-184B, mass ratio = 10:1) in the molar ratios of 1:1, 1:2, 1:4 and 1:8 to obtain HPE-1, HPE-2, HPE-3 and HPE-4 (Table S1, ESI†). Typically, the Sylguard-184A was added into the mixtures and stirred for 15 min, followed by the addition of Sylguard-184B. Afterwards, the resulting mixtures were stranded at 0.6 MPa for 2 min to remove air bubbles, and then transferred into the fluoridated molds. Finally, the samples were cured in a vacuum oven at 80 °C for 6 h to obtain the HPE films. In addition, the DPCz solution was replaced with TPB-3NH₂ solution and all reaction steps were identical to those of HPE-5.

4.4. Preparation of PDMS films

Firstly, the Sylguard-184A and Sylguard-184B were added to a beaker at a mass ratio of 10:1 and stirred for 10 min to obtain a homogeneous mixture. Secondly, the resulting mixture was stranded at 0.6 MPa for 5 min to remove air bubbles, and the mixture was subsequently poured into 15 × 15 cm² fluoridated molds. Finally, the molds were dried under vacuum at 80 °C for 4 h to obtain transparent PDMS films with a thickness of 1 mm.

Author contributions

N. L. designed and carried out the experiments, analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript. S. G. performed the experiments. Q. W. conceived and supervised the project and reviewed the paper. J. W. supervised and supported the project and reviewed the paper.

Data availability

The data supporting this article have been included as part of the ESI.†

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 52203064 and 52373061) and the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2023M732415). We would also like to thank Prof. Peng Wu from the Analytical & Testing Center of Sichuan University for his help with steady/transient fluorescence.

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Footnote

† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/d5mh00424a

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2025