Synthetic DNA–metal hybrid materials for information-preserving genetic storage

Navid Rabiee*^abcd and Mohammad Rabiee*^e
aDepartment of Basic Medical Science, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China. E-mail: nrabiee94@gmail.com; navidrabiee@tsinghua.edu.cn
^bTsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
^cMOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
^dDepartment of Biomaterials, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, SIMATS, Saveetha University, Chennai, 600077, India
^eBiomaterials Group, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran. E-mail: mrabiee@aut.ac.ir

First published on 10th July 2025

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1. Introduction

Humanity stands at the precipice of data abundance. The genomic revolution alone generates information at rates that overwhelm our storage infrastructure, with projections suggesting annual requirements of 2–40 exabytes for genetic data by 2025.^1,2 Silicon-based technologies, despite remarkable advances, face fundamental density limits and deteriorate within decades, a mere heartbeat in the context of human civilization.³ While DNA represents nature's solution to high-density information storage, encoding approximately 455 exabytes per gram, its biological vulnerability to hydrolysis, oxidation, and enzymatic degradation limits its longevity without energy-intensive preservation methods.^4,5 DNA nanotechnology⁶ and inorganic chemistry offers a visionary solution; synthetic hybrids that marry DNA's information density with metals’ durability. These materials represent not an incremental improvement but a paradigm shift, potentially extending information preservation from decades to millennia while maintaining accessibility through engineered retrieval mechanisms. Throughout history, the preservation of information has defined the arc of civilization, from clay tablets and scrolls to magnetic tapes and silicon chips. Each technological leap in data storage has extended humanity's capacity to remember, communicate, and evolve. Yet, as digital data generation outpaces our ability to store it reliably, a profound question emerges; how can we ensure the endurance of our most vital knowledge across centuries or even millennia? Traditional storage media, though ubiquitous, are inherently transient, susceptible to degradation, technological obsolescence, and environmental threats. In response, scientists are increasingly turning to the molecular scale, envisioning new materials that are not only compact and durable but intrinsically capable of encoding meaning. Among these, DNA stands out, not merely as the blueprint of life, but as a medium that evolution has refined over billions of years for efficient, dense, and compact information storage. The challenge now is to adapt this natural molecule into a synthetic framework resilient enough to endure the ages. This perspective charts the theoretical landscape for DNA–metal hybrid materials specifically designed for genetic information preservation. We explore emerging synthetic strategies, anticipate characterization challenges, and project performance capabilities that, while currently theoretical, are grounded in established scientific principles. By mapping potential applications and research trajectories, we aim to catalyze the interdisciplinary collaboration needed to transform these concepts from scientific possibility to technological reality.

2. Conceptual foundations for DNA–metal hybrids

The theoretical underpinnings of DNA–metal hybrid storage rest at the intersection of three scientific domains; the information theory of nucleic acids, coordination chemistry of metals with biomolecules, and materials science of composite structures. This convergence creates three conceptual pathways toward ultra-stable genetic storage systems, each with distinct theoretical advantages. The first approach, metallization of DNA nanostructures,⁷ envisions nucleic acid sequences as programmable templates for controlled metal deposition. DNA origami and other self-assembled structures provide nanoscale scaffolds with precise spatial organization, potentially directing the placement of metal atoms with near-atomic precision.^8,9 By converting specific regions of these structures into metallic elements while preserving others in their nucleic acid form, one could create information-rich composites where the pattern of metallization itself encodes additional data layers.

Building upon this conceptual framework, recent advances have demonstrated the practical realization of programmable DNA–metal systems through site-selective multimetallic nanopatterning on DNA origami templates. Leveraging the strong coordination affinities between specific metal ions (such as Co²⁺, Pd²⁺, Pt²⁺, Ag⁺, and Ni²⁺) and nucleobase-rich protruding clustered DNA strands (pcDNA), researchers have engineered precise nucleation zones on the origami surface.⁷ These pcDNA domains act as catalytic loci where metal ions accumulate, condense, and subsequently undergo reduction, allowing for highly controlled site-specific metallization. This bottom-up method enables the creation of hybrid nanostructures that integrate organic DNA motifs with inorganic metallic domains in pre-defined geometries and compositions. In recent implementations, up to five different metals were successfully co-deposited onto a single DNA origami platform, forming complex V-shaped nanopatterns with nanoscale precision. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM), along with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), revealed consistent spatial localization and uniform elemental distribution across binary, ternary, and higher-order metal combinations (Fig. 1). Surprisingly, despite starting with equimolar precursor solutions, final metal ratios varied slightly, indicating subtle differences in binding affinities, reduction kinetics, or nucleation energetics among the different metals. Moreover, selected-area electron diffraction (SAED) patterns confirmed the emergence of polycrystalline structures and novel alloy phases not present in unary systems, pointing to synergistic effects and new material behaviors at the nanoscale. Beyond structural novelty, these DNA–metal nanohybrids display functional enhancements. For instance, several of the synthesized multimetallic patterns exhibit enzyme-like catalytic activity, particularly mimicking peroxidase functions, which opens doors to biosensing and bioelectronic applications.¹⁰ Additionally, due to the programmable nature of DNA origami, the exact positioning, number, and type of metal sites can be finely tuned, enabling the systematic design of nanocircuitry, plasmonic waveguides, or quantum dot arrays within a biological-compatible framework. In the context of information storage, these hybrid systems offer a compelling architecture for multi-layered encoding. While the primary DNA sequence retains its conventional digital information capacity, the metallization pattern introduces a secondary, orthogonal data channel, defined by metal species, spatial distribution, crystallinity, and even oxidation states. This dual-mode encoding could, in principle, enable ultra-dense, robust, and functionally rich molecular storage systems that are readable by both sequencing technologies and nanoscale imaging modalities. Furthermore, the integration of metal elements enhances structural durability and chemical resistance, mitigating some of the stability issues commonly associated with naked DNA storage in environmental or physiological settings. The presence of metals may also allow these nanostructures to interface with electronic systems more effectively, through charge conduction, magnetic response, or catalytic conversion. In future iterations, such DNA–metal hybrids could serve as active nodes in nanoscale computation or environmental sensing systems, marrying the programmability of biology with the versatility of inorganic materials. These advances mark a significant step toward the realization of synthetic, multifunctional DNA-based materials, capable not only of storing information in multiple modalities but also of performing tasks, responding to stimuli, and evolving with external conditions. This convergence of information theory, chemistry, and materials science pushes the frontier of what molecular devices can achieve.

Expanding on this vision of multifunctional DNA-based materials, recent work has demonstrated that the architectural precision and programmability of DNA origami can also be harnessed for molecular-level encryption, giving rise to DNA origami cryptography (DOC).¹¹ While DNA–metal hybrids exemplify the structural and functional integration of inorganic and biological components for physical data encoding, DOC introduces a complementary paradigm wherein spatial configurations of nucleotides and hybridization patterns are used to protect, conceal, and authenticate digital information at the nanoscale. Unlike conventional DNA storage methods that rely solely on linear nucleotide sequences, DOC leverages the three-dimensional spatial organization of DNA origami to encode information into braille-like nanostructures, physical puzzles readable only by those with the correct molecular key. In this system, a digital message (such as text, music, or imagery) is first converted into binary code, which is then mapped onto a spatial dot matrix (Fig. 2). Each digit in this matrix corresponds to a designated hybridization site on a folded DNA origami scaffold. Rather than being physically folded with conventional staple strands from the outset, a separate set of message strands (M-strands), engineered with biotin tags and tailored sequence specificity, bind selectively to targeted scaffold sites. These tags remain cryptic to external observers unless appropriate structural transformations are triggered. This method introduces multi-layered encryption, beginning with binary-to-pattern conversion, followed by spatial steganography (via biotinylated strands and optional protein markers), and concluding with DNA origami encryption (DOE), where scaffold strand routing and folding geometry act as the final protective layer. Importantly, the resulting structure can only be correctly interpreted when the recipient has access to the appropriate folding scheme and complementary sequences, rendering brute-force decryption practically infeasible at current levels of nanoscale resolution. The power of DOC lies in its physical embodiment of information, wherein the folding topology, hybridization positions, and presence of steganographic markers collectively form a cryptographic key. A single origami structure using a 7249-nucleotide M13 scaffold can theoretically encode a key space exceeding 700 bits, offering more encryption capacity than many standard digital systems. Moreover, the modularity of DNA origami allows message fragments to be distributed across multiple structures, each interlinked through sequence-specific hybridization. This not only enhances data integrity and access control but also prevents unauthorized partial reconstruction. In contrast to traditional biochemical encryption approaches, DOC does not rely on transient reactions or sequence scrambling. Instead, it produces persistent, addressable nanostructural puzzles, decipherable only via direct nanoscale imaging, such as AFM or, potentially, higher-resolution 3D methods in development. Although current decryption methods are time-consuming, future advancements in high-speed AFM, automated folding analysis, and AI-driven image recognition could enable real-time readout and validation. The fusion of DOC with metallized origami could yield multimodal hybrid systems, in which electronic, catalytic, or optical functionalities are directly tied to the encrypted pattern itself. In such systems, metallization could not only reinforce the physical structure and enhance resistance to degradation but also act as a second information carrier, encoding material properties like conductivity or plasmonic response as a third data channel. This tripartite data system, comprising DNA sequence, metallization profile, and spatial folding pattern, could serve as the foundation for next-generation molecular memory devices, logic gates, or authentication tags.

The second pathway involves encapsulation of DNA within engineered metal–organic frameworks (MOFs).^12,13 These crystalline materials, constructed from metal nodes and organic linkers, form porous networks with tunable architectures.^14–16 The theoretical appeal lies in creating nanoscale vaults where DNA molecules reside within protective chambers, shielded from environmental threats while remaining accessible through designed chemical triggers that induce framework disassembly. The third strategy explores direct coordination between metal ions and nucleobases to form extended network structures.^17,18 This approach harnesses the natural affinity of DNA bases for specific metals, guanine for silver, thymine for mercury, cytosine for copper, to create coordination bonds that simultaneously encode information and enhance stability. The metal selection, oxidation state, and coordination geometry could theoretically encode additional information layers beyond the base sequence itself. Each conceptual pathway presents unique theoretical advantages for information density, environmental resistance, and retrieval mechanisms. The competition and convergence between these approaches will likely shape the evolution of the field, with hybrid strategies potentially combining elements from multiple pathways to achieve optimal performance.

The integration of inorganic components with DNA scaffolds unlocks a paradigm of multi-layered information encoding, dramatically expanding storage capacity beyond the inherent two bits per nucleobase pair. Fig. 3 provides a conceptual illustration of this principle, showcasing how distinct physical and chemical properties at different scales can serve as independent information-bearing strata. Beyond the primary DNA base sequence (Fig. 3, top panel, layer 1), information can be encoded through the precise selection and spatial arrangement of coordinated metal ions or deposited metallic nanostructures (layer 2). Furthermore, the specific coordination geometry adopted by these metal centers with the DNA (layer 3), their accessible oxidation states (layer 4), and ultimately the complex three-dimensional supramolecular architecture of the resulting DNA–metal hybrid material (layer 5) all represent additional, addressable layers for data inscription. This multi-modal approach (Fig. 3, bottom left panel) theoretically allows for a significant increase in the bits stored per nucleotide unit, potentially boosting the overall information density by several factors compared to native DNA. Consequently, as depicted in Fig. 3, bottom right panel, the projected volumetric and gravimetric storage densities of such advanced DNA–metal hybrids overshadow those of conventional electronic media and significantly surpass even the impressive capacity of biological DNA alone, motivating the development of sophisticated synthetic strategies to realize these multi-layered encoding schemes.

3. Projected synthetic methodologies

The realization of DNA–metal hybrids for information storage will likely require sophisticated synthesis techniques that bridge biological precision with inorganic materials processing. We project several methodologies that could emerge in the coming decade.

For metallized DNA structures, advances in site-specific electron beam reduction may enable the selective conversion of nucleic acid regions to metallic nanostructures with unprecedented spatial control.^19,20 This approach would leverage DNA's self-assembly capabilities while introducing photolithographic precision to the metallization process. Early proof-of-concept work demonstrated basic metallization of DNA origami,^21,22 but future systems could achieve single-base resolution, potentially encoding information in both the DNA sequence and metallization pattern.

Encapsulation approaches may advance through biomimetic mineralization processes inspired by natural phenomena.^23,24 DNA molecules could be surrounded by precisely controlled crystallization fronts, creating protective shells with engineered porosity. Emerging work in living crystallization systems, where crystal growth responds to biological templates, suggests that nanoscale control over encapsulation geometry is theoretically achievable.^25–27 Coordination polymer approaches²⁸ might evolve through programmed assembly processes where specific metal ions are sequentially introduced to DNA templates under precisely controlled conditions.^29,30 The metal sequence, spacing, and oxidation states could themselves carry encoded information, creating multi-layered storage systems that maximize information density. Preliminary work with simple metal–nucleobase complexes demonstrates feasibility, but comprehensive systems with controlled assembly remain theoretical.

Building on these emerging concepts of biologically guided crystallization and metal-template encoding, recent advancements have demonstrated the practical realization of programmable encapsulation systems using MOFs. These porous crystalline materials bridge the gap between theoretical coordination-based DNA templating and functional nucleic acid delivery. In particular, a series of engineered isoreticular MOFs based on the Ni-MOF-74 architecture has been developed, offering tunable pore sizes that can be tailored to match the length and flexibility of single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) molecules (Fig. 4).³¹ Unlike amorphous or stochastic mineralization shells, these MOFs offer atomically defined pore channels, ranging from 2.2 to 4.2 nanometers, constructed through the systematic elongation of organic linkers bearing salicylic acid termini. These highly ordered structures function as molecular sieves, enabling selective and complete encapsulation of ssDNA strands while providing a confined crystalline environment that shields the nucleic acids from enzymatic degradation. The controlled interaction strength between ssDNA and the MOF interior further allows for reversible uptake and release, essential for downstream cellular delivery applications. Remarkably, this system operates not only as a protective carrier but also as a functional delivery platform. Two variants in the series, Ni-IRMOF-74-II and -III, demonstrated exceptional transfection efficiency in mammalian immune cells, including difficult-to-transfect populations such as CD4+ T cells and THP-1 monocytes. This performance is attributable to the precise control of host–guest dynamics enabled by pore geometry engineering, highlighting the critical role of crystal design in bio-nano interfaces. These findings suggest that beyond acting as inert containers, MOFs can serve as active mediators of information, where pore structure, metal identity, and linker chemistry collectively contribute to both molecular protection and programmable release kinetics. In the broader context of metal-coordination-based information storage and processing, this MOF platform could evolve into a versatile chassis for constructing multi-layered nucleic acid systems, combining the structural precision of crystallization, the encoding capacity of sequence-defined DNA, and the responsiveness of functional materials. Thus, the integration of DNA-templated crystallization concepts with pore-tunable coordination frameworks offers a promising pathway toward biomolecular storage and delivery systems that are simultaneously protective, functional, and information-rich. It represents a critical step from conceptual mineralization models to operational bioinorganic architectures capable of executing gene delivery, molecular computation, or secure information transmission at the nanoscale.

As shown in Table 1, we have identified five distinct synthetic approaches with unique theoretical capabilities for DNA–metal hybrid storage systems. Each approach offers distinctive advantages in terms of projected information density, anticipated stability features, and theoretical retrieval methods, creating a spectrum of possible implementation pathways tailored to specific applications.

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The selective DNA metallization approach, as detailed in the first row of Table 1, offers particularly promising prospects for evolutionary record storage due to its dual-layer encoding capacity. This method could theoretically achieve information densities of 10²¹–10²² bits per gram by encoding data both in the underlying DNA sequence and in the precise pattern of metallization.^39–41 The noble metal components (Au, Ag, Pt) provide exceptional protection against common degradation pathways, including UV radiation, oxidation, and hydrolysis.^42,43 In contrast, the bio-inspired mineralization strategy, while offering slightly lower theoretical information density, provides exceptional pH stability across the entire range from 1–14. This approach, utilizing zirconium, aluminum, and titanium frameworks, creates comprehensive protective environments particularly suited for cultural heritage preservation where exposure to varied and unpredictable conditions may occur over centuries. The most ambitious approach in terms of theoretical longevity appears to be programmable coordination networks, which could potentially achieve stability exceeding 10000 years through the formation of exceptionally stable metal–nucleobase complexes.⁴⁴ This approach leverages the coordination chemistry of metals like silver, copper, and platinum with nucleobases to create structures that could withstand even the harsh conditions of interstellar space, making them candidates for humanity's longest-duration information repositories. The two newer approaches, hybrid bioinorganic crystallization⁴⁵ and metal–peptide–DNA architectures,^46,47 represent emerging frontiers that draw inspiration from both materials science and structural biology. Particularly noteworthy is the potential for self-healing capabilities in lanthanide-based crystalline structures,^48,49 which could theoretically repair minor damage through dynamic coordination bond rearrangement, extending functional lifetimes beyond what passive stability alone might achieve. Across all approaches, the integration of biological catalysts, particularly metalloproteins, could enable energy-efficient synthesis under ambient conditions. Engineered proteins that control metal placement with atomic precision represent a biomimetic avenue that could overcome current limitations in synthetic control.

4. Anticipated characterization frontiers

The validation of DNA–metal hybrids will require characterization techniques that transcend conventional boundaries between biological and materials analysis. We anticipate several methodological frontiers that will emerge to address this challenge.

Non-destructive information verification represents perhaps the most critical need. Future systems might employ quantum sensing technologies that can detect the presence and arrangement of metal centers without disrupting the overall structure. Nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamond, for example, provide atomic-scale magnetic field sensing^50,51 that could potentially read metal ion arrangements without chemical disruption. Similarly, advances in label-free Raman spectroscopy⁵² might enable direct observation of metal–nucleobase interactions, providing structural fingerprints that correlate with encoded information. Accelerated aging protocols will be essential for validating millennial-scale stability claims within reasonable research timeframes. Beyond current approaches that rely on elevated temperatures, comprehensive aging systems might incorporate cyclic exposure to multiple stressors, radiation, humidity fluctuations, temperature extremes, and biological agents, to simulate centuries of environmental exposure within months. Computational modeling could play a crucial role in translating these accelerated results to projected real-world longevity. Table 2 provides a comprehensive overview of the projected characterization technologies that will be essential for advancing DNA–metal hybrid systems from theoretical concepts to validated storage solutions. This table highlights both the current limitations and the anticipated evolution of analytical capabilities across six critical domains of characterization.

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As depicted in Table 2, structural analysis techniques are projected to advance from current methods with limited resolution at organic–inorganic interfaces to sophisticated approaches utilizing cryo-electron tomography with elemental mapping in the next decade. This evolution is critical for validating the precise arrangements of metal atoms within DNA structures, particularly for systems where information is encoded in metallization patterns or coordination geometries. The long-term vision of quantum coherence tomography could eventually enable real-time observation of these hybrid materials at atomic resolution, providing unprecedented insight into their structure and stability. Information verification methods, currently limited to destructive approaches requiring sample processing, are expected to evolve toward non-invasive techniques such as surface-enhanced Raman fingerprinting within the next decade. This transition is essential for practical information retrieval from irreplaceable archival materials, where sample destruction would be unacceptable. The theoretical endpoint of quantum non-demolition measurements represents the ultimate goal, complete information extraction without any physical impact on the stored data. Perhaps most crucial for validating millennial storage claims will be advances in stability assessment. Current limitations in extrapolating from accelerated aging conditions severely constrain our ability to make credible longevity predictions. The development of multi-stress parallel aging chambers in the next decade will enable more comprehensive simulation of environmental conditions, while longer-term developments in quantum simulation could eventually provide predictive degradation modeling with unprecedented accuracy. The multi-parameter integration column of Table 2 highlights the need for holistic characterization approaches that combine multiple analytical dimensions. For example, the integration of structural analysis with information content verification will be essential for validating that physical changes in hybrid materials do not compromise stored data. Similarly, comprehensive environmental resistance testing will need to assess the combined effects of multiple stressors rather than evaluating each in isolation, as is common in current practice. The development of standardized information retrieval and verification protocols represents another anticipated frontier. Future systems might incorporate self-contained instruction sets embedded within the hybrid material itself, nanoscale equivalents to the Rosetta Stone that provide keys to decoding the preserved information even if contemporary knowledge is lost.

The anticipated advancements in characterization methodologies (Table 2) are essential not only for validating information integrity and stability but also for comprehensively mapping the environmental resilience of DNA–metal hybrid systems. As conceptually depicted in Fig. 5, different hybrid architectures are projected to exhibit distinct and often complementary resistance profiles when subjected to a diverse array of potential degradation factors. For instance, while unprotected DNA remains highly susceptible across nearly all stressors, strategic inorganic integration offers substantial improvements. Silica encapsulation may provide moderate protection against hydrolysis and enzymatic attack, whereas more sophisticated systems like metallized DNA could offer enhanced resistance to UV radiation and oxidative damage due to the protective and potentially catalytic nature of the metallic layer. DNA–MOF composites, with their tunable porosity and crystalline structure, are expected to excel in shielding DNA from enzymatic degradation and pH extremes. Furthermore, technologies such as MXene–DNA hybrids might leverage the 2D material's properties^57–59 for superior mechanical resilience and barrier functions. Coordination networks and other advanced DNA–metal constructs are theorized to achieve the most robust and broad-spectrum protection, including significant resistance to high temperatures and ionizing radiation. The characterization of these multifaceted resistance profiles, moving beyond single-stressor analysis to combinatorial environmental challenges, will be critical for tailoring specific DNA–metal hybrid materials to the unique environmental demands of their intended long-term storage applications, from terrestrial archives to deep space missions.

Building on these projected advancements in structural characterization and environmental resilience profiling, recent breakthroughs in colloidal crystal engineering provide a compelling pathway for constructing architecturally precise and functionally robust DNA–metal hybrid systems. One particularly promising direction involves the integration of MOF nanoparticles with oligonucleotides to create programmable superlattices.⁶⁰ These MOF–DNA constructs serve not only as information carriers but also as protective architectures that enhance the material's stability under diverse environmental stressors. MOFs, known for their modular composition, permanent porosity, and customizable functionality, offer a unique platform for marrying structural order with tailored reactivity. When functionalized with dense DNA shells, these nanoparticles can self-assemble into well-defined 2D and 3D superlattices through sequence-specific interactions, essentially acting as programmable atom equivalents (PAEs) (Fig. 6). Crucially, the resulting crystalline assemblies exhibit highly tunable lattice parameters, driven by the MOF core geometry and the DNA linkage strategy. These precise arrangements, validated by emerging high-resolution techniques such as cryo-electron tomography and small-angle X-ray scattering, provide a model system for studying the correlation between nanoscale ordering and information integrity under stress. Moreover, the functional capabilities embedded in these assemblies open new avenues for multi-layered data encoding and in situ information verification. For example, porphyrinic MOF nanorods assembled into ordered arrays have demonstrated catalytic photoactivity, suggesting that future systems could be engineered to perform active self-reporting functions, such as real-time oxidative stress sensing or signal amplification upon environmental trigger. These features align directly with the projected development of non-destructive verification technologies, including surface-enhanced Raman fingerprinting and quantum coherence imaging, where the lattice structure itself could participate in information readout. Importantly, the shape anisotropy and surface chemistry of MOF nanoparticles further enable the design of hierarchical structures that incorporate built-in environmental shielding. Unlike traditional encapsulation methods, these assemblies offer intrinsic protection mechanisms, such as pH buffering, selective permeability, and localized reactive oxygen species scavenging, that can be fine-tuned via the MOF's coordination environment and ligand selection. This makes them ideal candidates for millennial-scale data preservation in both terrestrial and extraterrestrial contexts, where exposure to ionizing radiation, vacuum desiccation, or extreme temperature fluctuations is expected. In this light, MOF–DNA superlattices exemplify a new class of bioinorganic composites where structural precision, functional versatility, and environmental resilience converge. They stand as a critical testbed for future advances in storage material science, enabling the development of durable, readable, and intelligent molecular archives. Their integration into the roadmap outlined in Table 2 may thus represent a decisive step toward realizing a truly next-generation platform for long-term genetic and digital information storage, engineered from the bottom up, but designed for eternity.

5. Theoretical performance horizons

The theoretical performance limits of DNA–metal hybrids emerge from fundamental physicochemical principles rather than current technological capabilities. Information density, for example, is ultimately bounded by atomic spacing, with theoretical maxima approaching one bit per atom in crystalline structures. DNA already approaches remarkable density with two bits per nucleotide (approximately 10²¹ bits per gram),^39–41 but metallic elements introduce additional encoding dimensions through variations in element type, oxidation state, and coordination geometry. A multi-layered encoding approach could theoretically achieve densities of 10²²–10²³ bits per gram, sufficient to store all human genomic data ever sequenced within a single gram of material. Such extreme densities remain theoretical but illustrate the field's transformative potential compared to electronic media density limits of approximately 10¹⁵ bits per gram. Table 3 presents a comprehensive analysis of the projected performance evolution for DNA–metal information systems across multiple critical dimensions. This table traces the anticipated trajectory from current DNA technology through near-term and medium-term developments to the theoretical ultimate limits of these hybrid materials.

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The dramatic progression in information density shown in Table 3 represents one of the most compelling advantages of DNA–metal hybrid systems. While current DNA technology already achieves impressive densities of 10²⁰–10²¹ bits per gram, the introduction of metal components is projected to enable multi-layered encoding strategies that could increase this by several orders of magnitude in the medium term. The theoretical ultimate limit of 10²³–10²⁴ bits per gram approaches the fundamental physical constraints of atomic-level information storage. Perhaps even more significant is the projected evolution in ambient stability. The table highlights the stark contrast between current DNA technology, which typically degrades within 4–7 years under ambient conditions, and the theoretical potential of optimized DNA–metal hybrids to remain stable for over 10000 years. This transition from biological timescales to geological ones represents a fundamental paradigm shift in information preservation capability. The multi-dimensional nature of the anticipated improvements is particularly noteworthy. Beyond the primary metrics of density and stability, DNA–metal hybrids offer potential advances across numerous functional dimensions, from energy requirements to error rates, physical durability, and access control.^53,54,56,61 For instance, the progression from continuous refrigeration requirements for conventional DNA to zero-maintenance ambient storage for hybrid systems would dramatically reduce the resource demands of large-scale genetic archives. The evolution of information layer complexity, progressing from the single-layer sequence information of conventional DNA to hyperdimensional encoding with more than five independent information dimensions, illustrates the profound architectural innovations that metal incorporation enables. This multi-layered approach not only increases raw storage density but also creates opportunities for sophisticated information structures with built-in redundancy, error correction, and security features. Temporal stability represents another theoretical frontier.^62,63 While conventional DNA deteriorates through spontaneous depurination and oxidation within decades, coordination with specific metals can dramatically alter these reaction kinetics.^64,65 Theoretical models suggest that optimal metal–DNA structures could resist degradation for periods exceeding 10000 years under ambient conditions, approaching timescales relevant to human civilization itself.

The comprehensive performance potential of DNA–metal hybrid systems, encompassing the various dimensions detailed in Table 3, is effectively visualized in Fig. 7. This multi-parameter comparison underscores that while native DNA offers inherent advantages in retrieval simplicity due to established biochemical protocols, its performance across stability, environmental resistance, and error resilience is markedly inferior. Intermediate approaches, such as silica encapsulation, provide incremental improvements in durability and stability but may not substantially elevate information density or offer sophisticated access control. In contrast, advanced DNA–metal hybrid architectures like metallized DNA, DNA–MOF composites, and particularly DNA–metal coordination networks, are projected to exhibit significantly expanded performance polygons. These systems theoretically push the boundaries of information density and temporal stability to unprecedented levels. Notably, as depicted, coordination networks are anticipated to demonstrate a superior overall profile, excelling across most key metrics, including density, long-term stability, and broad environmental resistance, albeit potentially with increased retrieval complexity compared to simpler systems. The distinct shapes of the performance profiles in Fig. 7 highlight the inherent trade-offs and the specialized strengths of each material class, emphasizing that the optimal DNA–metal hybrid will likely be application-dependent, contingent on the specific balance of performance characteristics required for a given long-term storage scenario. Future advancements will aim to expand these performance polygons further, particularly in enhancing retrieval simplicity and error correction without compromising the core advantages of density and stability.

6. Application-specific material designs

The diverse performance requirements of different application domains will likely drive specialized material designs tailored to specific use cases. Table 4 provides a detailed analysis of the optimal material designs for six representative application domains, highlighting the distinct requirements and considerations for each use scenario.

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As shown in Table 4, each application domain demands a unique combination of material design, metal components, and performance characteristics. Scientists optimally utilizes zirconium-MOF encapsulated DNA with redundant encoding to prioritize chemical stability over extreme longevity.^66,67 The key metal components, Zr(IV), Ti(IV), and Al(III) nodes with carboxylate linkers, create frameworks that offer exceptional protection against humidity fluctuations, temperature cycling, and microbial exposure.^68–70 Importantly, this application emphasizes simplified extraction methods using basic laboratory equipment, reflecting the practical need for future scientists to access this information with potentially limited resources. In stark contrast, the deep geological application demands materials capable of withstanding extreme conditions over geological timescales.^71–73 The optimal design for this application involves coordination network crystallites embedded in synthetic inorganic matrices, utilizing Cu(II) and Ag(I) coordination polymers within silicate or phosphate hosts. These materials must withstand extreme pressure, maintain thermal stability to 200 °C, resist radiation damage,^74,75 and preserve information integrity for more than 10000 years, a requirement that exceeds most conventional materials science paradigms.

Perhaps the most technically demanding application is the interstellar information capsule, which must function under the harsh conditions of space. The proposed multi-layered protection system with quantum-resistant encoding represents the ultimate expression of DNA–metal hybrid technology, incorporating noble metal cores with lanthanide-doped protective shells. This design must withstand vacuum conditions, cosmic radiation, micrometeorite impacts, and temperature extremes ranging from near absolute zero to 400 °C. Additionally, the retrieval systems must be self-contained and interpretable without cultural context, potentially utilizing pictographic instructions and universal physical constants as reference points. The medical genetic application presents a different set of challenges, emphasizing privacy, controlled access, and stability matched to human lifespans rather than millennial preservation. The biodegradable metal–peptide–DNA composites proposed for this application incorporate biocompatible metals like zinc, magnesium, and calcium with tailored release profiles, creating systems that can be accessed through graduated authentication protocols while maintaining information security. The timelines to theoretical implementation vary significantly across applications, from near-term possibilities (10–15 years) for medical genetic applications to very long-term horizons (50+ years) for interstellar information capsules. This variation reflects both the technical challenges associated with each application and the urgency of the societal needs they address.

7. Research roadmap and ethical considerations

The development of DNA–metal hybrid materials will require coordinated advances across multiple disciplines. We propose a conceptual research roadmap organized around four parallel tracks:

(1) Fundamental chemistry: exploring the coordination chemistry of nucleobases with diverse metal centers, mapping stability landscapes, and developing predictive models for hybrid material behavior.

(2) Fabrication technologies: advancing precision metallization, encapsulation techniques, and scalable production methods that bridge nanoscale precision with macroscale output.

(3) Information systems: developing encoding/decoding protocols, error correction strategies, and retrieval technologies specifically designed for hybrid materials.

(4) Validation frameworks: creating accelerated aging protocols, non-destructive characterization methods, and standardized performance metrics.

Table 5 presents an integrated research roadmap that details the anticipated milestones and challenges across four developmental phases spanning from foundational research to long-term expansion. This comprehensive roadmap highlights the interconnected nature of advances required in fundamental chemistry, materials engineering, information science, and characterization technologies.

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The foundation phase outlined in Table 5 establishes the fundamental scientific understanding necessary for DNA–metal hybrid development. The comprehensive mapping of metal–nucleobase coordination chemistry represents a critical starting point, as it will define the palette of interactions available for hybrid material design. In parallel, materials engineering efforts will focus on developing precision metallization techniques and controlled encapsulation methods that can translate theoretical concepts into physical prototypes with nanoscale precision. The development phase builds upon these foundations to create more sophisticated systems with practical utility. Rational design of metal–nucleic acid interfaces will advance from empirical approaches to predictive synthesis, while materials engineering will shift focus from prototype creation to scaled production of simple hybrid systems. This phase also emphasizes the implementation of multi-layer encoding strategies in practical systems, transforming theoretical information architectures into functioning storage technologies. The application phase represents the transition from laboratory development to real-world implementation. The emergence of designer metal–nucleobase assemblies with programmed self-assembly capabilities will enable industrial-scale production of application-specific hybrid materials. Information science advances during this phase will create complete encoding/decoding ecosystems with self-contained retrieval systems designed for specific application contexts, from biodiversity archives to cultural heritage preservation. The expansion phase envisions the most sophisticated implementations of DNA–metal hybrid technology, including self-healing materials capable of maintaining information integrity through internal repair mechanisms. The development of global production standards and integrated manufacturing platforms will enable widespread adoption, while information science advances will create hyperdimensional encoding schemes and civilization-scale archival systems designed for post-human readability. Across all phases, the interdisciplinary integration points highlighted in the rightmost column of Table 5 emphasize the need for collaborative approaches that span traditional disciplinary boundaries. The creation of shared material standards and common terminology in the foundation phase establishes the communication framework necessary for effective collaboration, while the feedback loops between material design and information architecture in later phases ensure that technical developments remain aligned with practical application needs. Progress across these domains will require purposeful integration of expertise from molecular biology, inorganic chemistry, materials science, information theory, and archaeology. Interdisciplinary research centers specifically focused on ultra-long-term information preservation could catalyze progress by bringing these diverse perspectives together around shared challenges. The ethical dimensions of millennial-scale information preservation merit particular attention. Decisions about what genetic information to preserve, who controls access, and how retrieval capabilities are maintained have implications that potentially span hundreds of human generations. Governance frameworks for ultra-long-term repositories must balance current ethical considerations with respect for the autonomy of future societies that might access this information. These ethical questions are not merely peripheral concerns but central design constraints for systems intended to function across civilizational timescales.

8. Visionary applications

The theoretical capabilities of DNA–metal hybrids suggest applications that transcend conventional data storage, potentially reshaping humanity's relationship with information across generational timescales. An Ark of Life repository could preserve the complete genomic diversity of Earth's biosphere, capturing not just individual reference genomes but population-level variation across species. Such a system could serve as insurance against biodiversity loss, preserving genetic information that might otherwise be permanently lost through extinction events. Unlike conventional biobanks that require continuous energy input and maintenance, DNA–metal repositories could potentially survive unattended for millennia, preserving our planet's genetic heritage through civilizational disruptions or catastrophic events. Deep time capsules represent another visionary application, creating intentional messages to future generations or even post-human civilizations. By encoding cultural and scientific knowledge alongside genetic information, these repositories could serve as civilization-scale messages across time. The design challenge extends beyond mere information preservation to include creating self-contained decoding systems that would remain interpretable after thousands of years, potentially drawing inspiration from archaeological discoveries like the Rosetta Stone that enabled decipherment of ancient languages. Perhaps most ambitiously, interstellar archives could preserve humanity's genetic and cultural heritage beyond Earth itself. Metallized DNA structures, properly shielded, might withstand the harsh conditions of interstellar space for periods exceeding 10000 years, potentially surviving even catastrophic planetary scenarios. Such archives could be incorporated into long-duration space missions or dedicated repository satellites, creating distributed backup systems for human knowledge and genetic diversity. These applications share a common theme; transcending the biological and technological fragility that currently constrains information preservation. By creating systems with geological-scale longevity, DNA–metal hybrids could fundamentally alter how we conceptualize information persistence across human generations. Fig. 8 situates these ambitions within a broader historical and projected technological trajectory. It illustrates how humanity has consistently strived to develop more dense, durable, and long-lasting methods for recording and transmitting knowledge, evolving from simple inscriptions on stone and clay in ancient times, through the eras of papyrus, parchment, and paper, to the magnetic, optical, and solid-state digital media predominant in the current Digital era. Each transition represented a significant leap in capacity and, often, longevity. The emergence of DNA as a storage medium marked a biological turn, offering unparalleled theoretical density. Now, the development of DNA–metal hybrid materials, as depicted in the near future to far future segments of Fig. 8, promises to build upon DNA's inherent advantages by conferring the exceptional stability and environmental resilience of inorganic materials. These advanced hybrids are thus poised to extend the achievable lifespan of stored information by orders of magnitude, making millennia-scale preservation a tangible goal and thereby enabling the truly long-term visionary applications previously outlined. The journey depicted in Fig. 7 underscores a fundamental human drive: to ensure that knowledge and heritage endure, a drive that DNA–metal hybrids are uniquely positioned to fulfill for future generations and perhaps even future civilizations.

9. Conclusion

Synthetic DNA–metal hybrid materials represent a pivotal conceptual frontier in information storage, poised to fundamentally alter humanity's relationship with genetic data by extending preservation timescales from mere decades to millennia. While significant scientific and engineering challenges persist, the theoretical foundations explored herein suggest a tangible pathway toward information systems boasting unprecedented storage density and exceptional durability. The journey from current laboratory concepts to deployed, ultra-stable repositories will necessitate sustained interdisciplinary collaboration across chemistry, materials science, biology, and information theory. As illustrated throughout this perspective, the potential of these materials is multifaceted. The ability to achieve multi-layered information encoding promises densities far exceeding even native DNA, as projected synthetic approaches mature. Concurrently, advancements in characterization will be crucial for validating the remarkable environmental resilience and multi-parameter performance that these hybrids theoretically offer. Tailoring these materials for specific, demanding applications, from deep geological archives to interstellar probes, will require a nuanced understanding of these performance trade-offs. The integrated research roadmap outlines a phased approach to navigate the existing challenges and unlock the full potential of this technology. The development of DNA–metal hybrids transcends conventional technological advancement; it touches upon our profound relationship with time and legacy. By creating materials capable of outlasting current civilizations, as contextualized by the long evolution of information storage, we assume both the privilege and immense responsibility of determining what knowledge and genetic heritage traverse the ages. This endeavor calls not only for bold scientific innovation but also for deep ethical consideration regarding the stewardship of information intended for generations yet unborn. As we stand at this threshold, the convergence of DNA's inherent information capacity with the enduring nature of metallic structures offers a compelling vision: systems capable of preserving our collective genomic and cultural heritage on timescales commensurate with human civilization itself. The path forward is challenging, but the potential reward, creating a lasting molecular legacy for humanity, presents a scientific and societal pursuit of the highest order.

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts to declare.

Data availability

This review article does not include any primary research data, and no new data were generated or analysed. The MATLAB scripts used to create illustrative figures are not publicly available as they do not constitute central data for reproducibility or scientific interpretation.

Acknowledgements

N. R. is supported by the Tsinghua University-Peking University Joint Center for Life Science. The graphical abstract is created in BioRender. Rabiee, N. (2025) https://BioRender.com/7w1y2jy.

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